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Black Built Environment: race and architecture in America

Indices and Lists

The Directory of African-American Architects

"The Directory of African American Architects is maintained as a public service to promote an awareness of who African American architects are and where they are located. The sole qualification for listing is licensure in one of the fifty US jurisdictions and their territories."

National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA)

NOMA, which thrives only when voluntary members contribute their time and resources, has as its mission the building of a strong national organization, strong chapters and strong members for the purpose of minimizing the effect of racism in our profession.

Great Diverse Designers Library

Created by Beyond the Built Environment, "this library serves as a resource to the profession as well as a platform of elevation of Diverse Designers. Diverse is defined as Women (of any ethnicity) and Black Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC). Designer is defined as Architects, Interiors, Landscape, Planners, Environmental, Engineers, Students and Artists. It is important that we celebrate all the ways these designers impact our profession and our built environment."

BIPOC Studio

A crowd-source resource list of active architecture and design practices across the country.

Building Community: Pioneering Black Architects in L.A.: A Virtual Tour (by Los Angeles Conservancy)

Pioneering Women in American Architecture (by the Beverly Willis Architectural Foundation)

15 Important African American Architects (by ThoughtCo.com)

10 Black Architects Whose Work Has Shaped America (by Architizer.com)

Building A Better Future: The Work and Legacy of Five African American Architects (National Museum of African American History and Culture)

TIMELINE: ‘SAY IT LOUD’ Includes Timeline of Black Architects in New York Roberta Washington (Center for Architecture, New York City; Feburary 7, 2017)

"Opened in conjunction with Black History Month, SAY IT LOUD: Distinguished Black Designers of NYCOBA | NOMA puts the spotlight on architects and allied professionals of color, as well as their rarely recognized impacts on the architecture and design fields and the community at large. Among the 20 architects, designers and students honored with project photography, quotes, and video interviews, Roberta Washington, FAIA, NOMA, Principal, Roberta Washington Architects, has contributed a timeline of the history of black architects in New York..."

Resources about specific Architects and Firms

VIDEO: "Introduction to the History of Black Architects in New York" by Roberta Washington (nycoba NOMA and AIANY; February 22, 2016)

"QUICK! NAME A BLACK ARCHITECT!

In 1907, The New York Times reported that E. R. Williams, a "colored architect," was hired to add two floors to a four-story commercial building at West 46th Street and Eighth Avenue to create a department store for Negroes. Williams was also the architect of the first African American Museum planned for the Mall in 1929. Ever heard of him? Come get acquainted with a part of almost-forgotten architectural history. Washington will present stories of black architects in New York’s past and map the path to the present."

"Building A Better Future: The Work and Legacy of Five African American Architects" by Tess Christiansen and Lindsey Bestebreurtje (National Museum of African American History & Culture; September 19, 2018)

"... Pioneering African American architects, such as Harold L. Williams, Norma Merrick Sklarek, and John S. Chase, expanded the profession and paved the way for a new generation, including Philip G. Freelon and Michael Marshall..." This article profiles these five architects and highlights the materials related to each in the Smithsonian's collection.

Still Here: Three Architects of Afro-America: Julian Francis Abele, Hilyard Robinson, and Paul R. Williams by Max Bond (Harvard Design Magazine, issue 2; 1997)

"This trio of African Americans remains largely invisible within the history of architecture and architects in the United States, even as their work increasingly becomes known in the black community. Rectifying this invisibility would surely be consistent with the current and appropriate emphasis on our society’s “multicultural” character, if, by that term, we mean to encourage a fundamental reconceptualization of who we have been and are as a people. The potential benefits for architectural education of including the work of these three in “the canon” are significant. Whereas we are accustomed to inferring vision almost exclusively from aesthetics, their individual approaches to the practice of the social art of architecture also attest to vision. Each was highly skilled and rooted in the American experience, and each made an important mark on the built environment of the United States. A thoughtful assessment of their contributions, as unburdened as possible by the historical demons that sometimes obscure judgment, could spur thought and discussion toward a more serviceable set of standards for training future generations of architects, and for determining the quality of buildings."

UCLA Library Center for Oral History: African American Architects of Los Angeles series

"The interviews in the series African American Architects of Los Angeles document the work of selected African American architects who have enhanced the built environment, principally in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Influenced by earlier pioneers such as Paul R. Williams, these individuals overcame bias and discrimination to create structures which have become emblematic of the uniqueness of local architecture." Interviewees in this series are: Lester O. Bankhead, Robert A. Kennard, Norma Merrick Sklarek, John D. Williams, and Harold L. Williams.

Architects and Firms: A-G

Julian Francis Abele (1881-1950)

"Black and white portrait of Julian Abele Julian Francis Abele (1881-1950) was the most formally educated architect in the U.S. earning Certificates in Architectural Drawing from the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art and the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, as well as, a B.S. in Architecture from the University of Pennsylvania. From 1906-1950, Abele would go on to design over 100 cut stone buildings as senior designer for the Office of Horace Trumbauer in Philadelphia. Abele designed 39 buildings for “a new university for the Carolinas” (Duke University), including Duke Chapel, without ever stepping on campus. 21 buildings designed by Abele are listed on the National Register of Historic Places."

J. Max Bond Jr. (1935-2009)

Mr. Bond also designed the Audubon Biomedical Science and Technology Park in Upper Manhattan.Credit: Roy J. Wright Photography

"J. Max Bond Jr., long the most influential African-American architect in New York and one of a few black architects of national prominence, died on Wednesday in Manhattan. He was 73 and lived in Manhattan... At his death, Mr. Bond was the partner in charge of the museum portion of the National September 11 Memorial and Museum at the World Trade Center."

(above) "Mr. Bond also designed the Audubon Biomedical Science and Technology Park in Upper Manhattan.Credit: Roy J. Wright Photography"

"This collection documents the life and career of J. Max Bond, Jr., one of the most influential and prominent African-American architects and educators in the United States. The collection primarily documents Bond's professional activities rather than his building projects; however, the collection does contain project records and office records. The collection is made up of six series: Office Records, Personal Papers, Faculty Papers, Professional Papers, Project Records, and Reference Materials."

"The J. Max Bond, Jr. Fund supports programming in honor of J. Max Bond, Jr., FAIA, NOMA, (1935-2009) an African American architect, global citizen, and activist who made trailblazing contributions to the profession and beyond. He was a partner at Davis Brody Bond and former Dean of the City College of New York School of Architecture and Environmental Studies. The J. Max Bond Jr. Lecture was founded in 2010 as a collaboration between the New York Chapter of the National Organization of Minority Architects (nycoba|NOMA), the American Institute of Architects New York (AIANY) Diversity and Inclusion Committee, and the J. Max Bond Center for Urban Futures at the City College of New York."

Georgia Louise Harris Brown (1918-1999)

Wendell Campbell (1927-2008)

  • OBITUARY: Wendell Campbell (1927-2008) by Trevor Jensen and Blair Kamin (Chicago Tribune; July 15, 2008)
  • Wendell Campbell, First President of NOMA, Dies at 81 by John Gendall (Architect Magazine; July 21, 2008)
    "Campbell was a founder of the National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA) in 1971 and served as the group's first president, becoming a leading voice in advocating diversity in architecture. He was a devoted mentor to many younger architects and an active community leader, serving on the boards of NOMA, Mercy Hospital and Medical Center, the Black Ensemble Theatre, AIA Chicago, the Chicago Architectural Assistance Center, and the South Side YMCA, where he would regularly swim."
  • Black History Month Spotlight: Wendell Campbell, Chicago Architect by  Aido Mogos (WTTW - PBS; February 6, 2022)

Philip Goodwin Freelon, 1952–2019

Beverly Loraine Greene (1915-1957)

"She first made history by becoming the first African-American female to earn a bachelor of science degree in architectural engineering from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1936. A year later she furthered her education at Illinois by earning a master’s degree in city planning and housing."

Architects and Firms: H-Q

Walter Hood (1958- )

"Walter Hood is the creative director and founder of Hood Design Studio in Oakland, CA. He is also a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and lectures on professional and theoretical projects nationally and internationally. He is a recipient of the 2017 Academy of Arts and Letters Architecture Award, 2019 Knight Public Spaces Fellowship, 2019 MacArthur Fellowship, 2019 Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, and the 2021 recipient of the Architectural League’s President’s Medal award" (Hood Design Studio website).

"Hood Design Studio, Inc. is a social art and design practice based in Oakland, California founded in 1992. The studio’s practice is tripartite: art + fabrication, design + landscape, and research + urbanism."

Elizabeth J. Kennedy (currently active)

"Elizabeth is the founder of Elizabeth Kennedy Landscape Architect, PLLC (EKLA). Black-owned and woman-run, EKLA is the longest-surviving such firm in the country. Its longevity is intrinsically tied to Elizabeth’s tenacity and her belief in the importance of service—to clients, to the community, the emerging professionals she trains, the profession, and the process of design. The work she directs quietly challenges mainstream assumptions about the aspirations and needs of underrepresented voices. Systems and biases have long dispossessed the less powerful of spaces and rendered the people who use them invisible. Elizabeth is best known for work that counters this invisibility. Her projects at the intersection of social justice and design exemplify landscape architecture’s potential to engage a broader critical understanding of place and identity. It’s from this perspective and standpoint that Elizabeth teaches, directs, critiques, frames, collaborates, and edits – whether in her studio or through national debate." (aslany.org)

McKissack & McKissack (now McKissack)

"McKissack is the oldest minority/women-owned professional design and construction firm in the United States. A family-owned business for more than 118 years, McKissack has been a leader in planning, design, and construction of more than 6,000 projects, proudly upholding the standards of excellence established by its forefathers." (mckissack.com)

  • McKissack.com

Current website of the firm, McKissack.

"It’s rare to find a family that has been in the same business since before the Civil War, but the McKissacks are one such exceptional family."

Moses McKissack III (1879-1952)

Calvin Lunsford McKissack (1890-1968)

Leatrice McKissack (1930- )

An oral history project by the National Visionary Leadership Project (NVLP), "premier resource for oral history interviews with African American elders who shaped the 20th century." The full NVLP archive is at the Library of Congress.

Philip Payton (1876-1917)

As part of the New York Times' "Overlooked" series, a collection of obituaries for "remarkable black men and women [who] never received obituaries in The New York Times — until now. We’re adding their stories to our project about prominent people whose deaths were not reported by the newspaper."

Architects and Firms: R-V

Hilyard Robinson (1889-1986)

"Hilyard Robinson (1899-1986) graduated from Columbia University with a B.Arch in 1924 and an M.S. in Architecture in 1931. He was the first Black graduate to earn an architecture degree in the School’s history. Distinguished for his commitment to socially conscious design, Robinson returned to his hometown of Washington, DC to live and work upon graduation, and later spent nearly a year traveling internationally to study the design of public projects. While at Columbia, he began teaching in the architecture program at Howard University, where he served as Chair from 1928-1930, and where he remained deeply involved throughout his lifetime."

Drawing of Hampton Men's Dormitory, VA by Hilyard Robinson

(above) Drawing of Hampton Men's Dormitory, VA by Hilyard Robinson which is part of the digital collection at Howard University

Norma Merrick Sklarek (1926-2012)

"Norma Merrick Sklarek was the first African American woman registered as an architect in the U.S. To do so, she overcame the double hurdle of being both African American and female in a predominately white male profession. She was also the second female architect in California, and the first African American in almost 100 years to be honored by the American Institute of Architects with fellowship for outstanding architectural contribution." (National Visionary Leadership Project)

An oral history project by the National Visionary Leadership Project (NVLP), "premier resource for oral history interviews with African American elders who shaped the 20th century." A brief written biography by NVLP can be found here.

Smokehouse Associates (1968-1970)

This collective was active for in Harlem, New York City between 1968-1970 and "grew to encompass a diverse range of creative practitioners united behind the transformative potential of public art" (The Studio Museum). "Smokehouse was ambitious in its scale, community engagement, and interaction with the built environment" (publishers of Smokehouse Associates).

Robert R. Taylor (1868-1942)

"Robert R. (Robinson) Taylor (June 8, 1868-December 20, 1942), a native of Wilmington, N. C., was a pioneering black architect of national renown, regarded as the first academically trained black architect in the United States and the first black student to graduate from MIT. He was the principal architect at the Tuskegee Institute. His known work in North Carolina is the Carnegie Library at Livingstone College in Salisbury." (North Carolina Architects & Builders)

Emmanuel Thingue (~1962 - )

Emmanuel Thingue is a Haitian-born landscape architect that worked for the New York City Parks Department for 30 years designing over 30 parks across the city.

.Emmanuel Thingue in front of a busy playgound

Architects and Firms: W-Z

Roberta Washington

"Roberta Washington has been principal of Roberta Washington Architects, PC since 1983. Prior to starting her own firm, Ms. Washington worked as a health facility planner/designer for various New York City architectural firms and later ran a design studio for Maputo Province in Mozambique where she designed healthcare, educational and cultural projects. Ms. Washington is an architectural graduate of Howard University and Columbia University. In her own firm, she has designed or acted as project director for hundreds of new, renovated or restored buildings. Since 2001, Ms. Washington has researched, written and lectured about the history of black architects – primarily in New York State – and the history of black women in architecture in the U.S. Her Biographies appear in the Biographical Dictionary of African-American Architects, 1865-1945 and African American National Biography (online). Ms. Washington is also a co-curator of the “Now What?! Advocacy, Activism, and Alliances in American Architecture since 1968” online and traveling exhibit. She is a past President of the National Organization of Minority Architects, a past chairperson of the New York State Board of Architecture and a past Commissioner of the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission. She is currently on the board of Save Harlem Now ! an organization which serves to educate the community about the loss of, and often leads the fight to protect, important remnants of history past." (University of Notre Dame lecture series bio; 2021)

Harold L. Williams (1924 - 2015)

"Harold Louis Williams, FAIA, NOMAC, practiced architecture for over fifty years, in Los Angeles California. He established the firm of Harold Williams Associates (HWA), Architects & Urban Planners." He was one of the founders of National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA).

Paul Revere Williams (1894-1980)

"By any measure, the accomplishments of trailblazing architect Paul Williams are astounding. In a career spanning almost six decades, Williams designed more than 3,000 structures and mastered a range of architectural styles. 

He broke racial barriers, becoming the first African American member (and later, Fellow) of the American Institute of Architects (AIA), as well as a civic leader." (Los Angeles Conservancy)

"“For most of his life, Paul Williams lived in two worlds: one as an architect and one as an African American man in his community.”

When African American architect Paul Revere Williams was born in Los Angeles in 1894, the city—like its Black population—was small but growing rapidly. This expansion provided many opportunities for architects to design homes, offices, stores, and even communities. Williams thrived in this landscape, working on everything from elaborate homes for Hollywood stars like Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz, to churches for African American congregations such as the First A.M.E. and Second Baptist churches, to integrated public housing projects. Yet despite his success and growing fame, Williams also faced racism and segregation, which at times made him unwelcome in the very spaces he was designing.

The archive of this prolific architect, comprising tens of thousands of sketches, blueprints, and project notes, was jointly acquired by the Getty Research Institute and the University of Southern California School of Architecture in June 2020. In this episode, Karen Elyse Hudson, author and granddaughter of the architect, and LeRonn Brooks, associate curator for modern and contemporary collections at the GRI, discuss Williams’s trailblazing work and his impact on both the field of architecture and the city of L.A."

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